See How It Flies, Online Book.pdf

See How It Flies

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John S. Denker

See How It Flies

A new spin on the

perceptions, procedures, and

principles of flight.

Contents

Introduction

Readership, Topics, and Objectives

How to Use this Book

1 Energy Awareness and Energy Management

1.1 Total Energy Cannot Change

1.2 Energy Conversion

1.2.1 Converting Speed to Altitude and Back

1.2.2 Energy Per Unit Mass

1.2.3 Converting Fuel to Altitude

1.2.4 Power versus Energy

1.2.5 Drag and the Power Curve — Introduction

1.2.6 Rates of Energy Conversion

1.3 Effect of Controls on Energy

1.3.1 Power Budget — Using the Engine

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1.3.2 The Effects of the Throttle

1.3.3 The Effects of the Yoke

1.3.4 Sizes of Energy Reservoirs

1.4 Energy Management Strategy

1.5 Summary: Energy Management

2 Angle of Attack Awareness and Angle of Attack Management

2.1 The Importance of Angle of Attack

2.2 Definition of Angle of Attack

2.3 Trim for Angle of Attack!

2.4 Three Contributions to Angle of Attack

2.5 Perceiving Pitch Angle

2.6 Making Changes in Angle of Attack

2.7 Fly with a Light Touch

2.8 Trim Won't Solve All The World's Problems

2.9 Pitch Attitude versus Angle of Attack

2.10 Power plus Attitude does not equal Performance

2.11 Estimating the Relative Wind

2.12 Airspeed Is Related to Angle of Attack

2.12.1 Airspeed versus Coefficient of Lift

2.12.2 Coefficient of Lift versus Angle of Attack

2.12.3 Correcting for Reduced Density

2.12.4 Correcting for Reduced Lift Requirements

2.12.5 Correcting for Increased Lift Requirements

2.12.6 Compute with Calibrated not Indicated Airspeed

2.12.7 Correcting for Slip

2.12.8 Drag and Lift-to-Drag Ratio

2.13 Not Everything Depends on Angle of Attack

2.13.1 Explicit Airspeed Limits

2.13.2 Maneuvering Speed

2.13.3 Overview of Limits and Performance Numbers

2.14 Relative versus Absolute Angle of Attack

2.15 Summary

3 Airfoils and Airflow

3.1 Flow Patterns Near a Wing

3.2 Pressure Patterns Near a Wing

3.3 Stream Line Curvature

3.4 Bernoulli's Principle

3.4.1 Magnitude

3.4.2 Altimeters; Static versus Stagnation Pressure

3.4.3 Compressibility

3.5 Stall Warning Devices

3.6 Air Is A Fluid, Not A Bunch of Bullets

3.7 Other Fallacies

3.8 Inverted Flight, Cambered vs. Symmetric Airfoils

3.9 Thin Wings

3.10 Circulation

3.10.1 Visualizing the circulation

3.10.2 How Much Circulation? The Kutta Condition

3.10.3 How Much Lift? The Kutta-Zhukovsky Theorem

3.10.4 Quantifying the Circulation

3.11 Mechanically-Induced Circulation

3.12 Lift Requires Circulation & Vortices

3.12.1 Vortices

3.12.2 Wake Turbulence

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3.12.3 Induced Drag

3.12.4 Soft-Field Takeoff

3.13 Frost on the Wings

3.14 Consistent (Not Cumulative) Laws of Physics

3.15 Momentum in the Air

3.16 Summary: How a Wing Produces Lift

4 Lift, Thrust, Weight, and Drag

4.1 Definitions

4.2 Balance of Forces

4.3 Types of Drag

4.4 Coefficients, Forces, and Power

4.5 Induced vs. Parasite Drag

5 Vertical Damping, Roll Damping, and Stalls

5.1 Introduction and Overview

5.2 Vertical Damping

5.2.1 Origins of Vertical Damping

5.2.2 Loss of Vertical Damping

5.3 The Stall

5.3.1 Definition of Stall

5.3.2 Flying Beyond the Stall?

5.4 Roll Damping

5.4.1 Origins of Roll Damping

5.4.2 Loss of Roll Damping

5.4.3 Schemes to Increase Roll Damping

5.5 The Effect of Flaps

5.5.1 Effect on Stalling Speed

5.5.2 Effect on Incidence

5.5.3 Effect on Washout

5.5.4 Effect on Drag

5.5.5 Effect on Trim

5.6 Summary

6 Angle of Attack Stability, Trim, and Spiral Dives

6.1 The Basic Stability Principle

6.1.1 Center of Mass Too Far Aft

6.1.2 Center of Mass in the Middle

6.1.3 Center of Mass, Lift, and Area

6.1.4 Pitch-Axis Equilibrium

6.1.5 Canards Operate on the Same Principle

6.1.6 Beyond Decalage

6.1.7 Springs and Bobweights

6.1.8 Pitch Damping

6.1.9 Center of Mass Too Far Forward

6.1.10 Other Failure Modes

6.1.11 Practical Considerations

6.1.12 Phugoid Oscillations

6.2 Spiral Dive

6.2.1 Which Way Is Up?

6.2.2 Overview

6.2.3 General Discussion

6.2.4 Recovering From a Spiral Dive

6.2.5 Try It Yourself

6.3 Summary

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7 More About Energy and Power

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Making Changes in Airspeed

7.2.1 Front Side of the Power Curve

7.2.2 Back Side of the Power Curve

7.2.3 Right versus Wrong Procedures

7.3 You Can Get Away With A Lot During Cruise

7.4 Let ``George'' Do It

7.5 Max Performance using the Power Curve

7.5.1 Best Rate of Climb

7.5.2 Zero Power Available

7.5.3 Best Angle of Climb

7.5.4 Power Depends on Altitude via True Airspeed

7.5.5 Other Power and Altitude Effects

7.5.6 Wind Effects

7.5.7 Weight Effects

7.6 Variations in the Power Curve

7.6.1 Power Curve Depends on Aspect Ratio

7.6.2 Sketching the Curve

7.6.3 Some Theory

7.6.4 Power Requirements versus Speed

7.6.5 Power Requirements versus Altitude

7.7 Energy Management Stunts

7.7.1 High-Speed Steep Descent

7.7.2 Low-Speed Steep Descent

7.7.3 Skimming in Ground Effect

7.8 Summary

8 Yaw-Axis Torque Budget

8.1 Overview

8.2 Yaw Stability

8.3 Yaw Damping

8.4 Helical Propwash

8.5 P-Factor

8.5.1 Blade Speed

8.5.2 Blade Angle

8.5.3 Initial Takeoff Roll

8.5.4 Observing P-Factor

8.6 Gyroscopic Precession

8.7 Canted Engine

8.8 Rudder Usage During Rolls

8.8.1 Analysis of a Roll

8.8.2 Designers' Tricks

8.8.3 Transitory Adverse Yaw

8.8.4 Steady Adverse Yaw -- Twisted Lift

8.8.5 Yaw-Axis Inertia

8.8.6 Amount of Rudder Required

8.8.7 Summary: Coordinated Turning Procedures

8.9 Long-Tail Slip

8.10 Boat Turn

8.11 Weathervaning During Taxi

8.12 Asymmetric Thrust

8.13 Yaw-Axis Torque Budget — Summary

9 Roll-Axis Torque Budget

9.1 Dihedral

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9.2 Other Forms of Slip-Roll Coupling

9.3 Roll-Axis Stability

9.4 Differential Wingtip Speed; Overbanking

9.5 Rolling Moment due to Propeller Drag

9.6 Engine Inertia

9.7 Climbing and Descending Turns

9.8 Roll-Axis Torque Budget — Summary

10 Equilibrium, Stability, and Damping

10.1 Equilibrium

10.2 Stability

10.3 Damping

10.4 Relationship of Stability and Damping

10.5 Oleo-Pneumatic Struts

10.6 Oscillations

10.6.1 Analysis of Dutch Roll

10.6.2 How to Fight Oscillations

11 Slips, Skids, and Snap Rolls

11.1 A Lesson on Snap Rolls

11.2 Intentional Slips

11.3 Skids

11.4 Anticipate Correct Rudder Usage

11.5 Perceiving Slip, Perceiving Coordination

11.5.1 Looking Out the Side

11.5.2 Looking Out the Front

11.5.3 Using the Inclinometer Ball

11.5.4 Using the Seat of Your Pants

11.5.5 Intentional Slips

11.5.6 Slip Angle versus Bank Angle

11.6 Summary

12 Landing

12.1 Planning the Approach

12.2 Judging Left or Right

12.3 Judging High or Low; Rule of Thumb

12.4 Judging Pitch Attitude and Angle of Attack

12.4.1 Use Outside References and Trim

12.4.2 Observe and Control More Than One Thing

12.4.3 Correct for Wind

12.5 Other Perceptions

12.6 Basic ``Normal'' Landing

12.6.1 Short Final

12.6.2 Flare

12.6.3 Timing the Flare

12.6.4 Touchdown and Rollout

12.7 High-Performance Landing

12.7.1 Use the Right Configuration

12.7.2 Touch Down at the Right Point

12.7.3 Touch Down at a Low Speed

12.7.4 Use the Brakes

12.7.5 Summary: High-Performance Landing

12.8 Soft-field Landing

12.9 Crosswind Landing

12.10 Going Around

12.11 Learning to Land the Airplane

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