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John Adams

America ’ s second president, Adams served from 1797 to 1801. A Federalist, he supported a powerful centralized

government. His most notable actions in office were the undertaking of the Quasi-war with France and the

passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

John Quincy Adams

Son of John Adams and president from 1825 to 1829. As James Monroe’s secretary of state, Adams worked to

expand the nation’s borders and authored the Monroe Doctrine. His presidency was largely ineffective due to

lack of popular support; Congress blocked many of his proposed programs.

Samuel Adams

A leader of the Sons of Liberty. Adams suggested the formation of the Committees of Correspondence and fought

for colonial rights throughout New England. He is credited with provoking the Boston Tea Party.

Jane Addams

A reformer and pacifist best known for founding Hull House in 1889. Hull House provided educational services

to poor immigrants.

The Age of Reason

Written by Thomas Paine. The Age of Reason was published in three parts between 1794 and 1807. A critique of

organized religion, the book was criticized as a defense of Atheism. Paine’s argument is a prime example of the

rationalist approach to religion inspired by Enlightenment ideals.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)

Created in 1933 as part of FDR’s New Deal. The AAA controlled the production and prices of crops by offering

subsidies to farmers who stayed under set quotas. The Supreme Court declared the AAA unconstitutional in

1936.

Albany Plan

Submitted by Benjamin Franklin to the 1754 gathering of colonial delgates in Albany, New York. The plan called

for the colonies to unify in the face of French and Native American threats. Although the delegates in Albany

approved the plan, the colonies rejected it for fear of losing their independent authority. The Crown rejected the

Albany Plan as well, wary of cooperation between the colonies.

Horatio Alger

Author of popular young adult novels, such as Ragged Dick , during the Industrial Revolution. Alger’s “rags to

riches” tales emphasised that anyone could become wealthy and successful through hard work and exceptional

luck.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Passed by Federalists in 1798 in response to the XYZ Affair and growing Republican support. On the grounds of

“national security,” the Alien and Sedition Acts increased the number of years required to gain citizenship,

allowed for the imprisonment and deporation of aliens, and virtually suspended freedom of speech. Popular

dissatisfaction with the acts secured Republican Thomas Jefferson’s bid for presidency in 1800, and were the

undoing of the Federalist Party.

Allies

The partership of Great Britain, France, and Italy during World War I. The Allies were pitted against the Central

Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1917, the U.S. joined the war on the Allies’ side. During World War

II, the Allies included Great Britain, the Soviet Union, the U.S., and France.

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)

Founded in 1920. The ACLU seeks to protect the civil liberties of individuals, often by bringing “test cases” to

court in order to challenge questionable laws. In 1925, the ACLU challenged a Christian fundamentalist law in

the Scopes Monkey Trial.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

Founded in 1886. The AFL sought to organize craft unions into a federation. The loose structure of the

organization differed from its rival, the Knights of Labor, in that the AFL allowed individual unions to remain

autonomous. Eventually the AFL joined with the Congress of Industrial Organizations to form the AFL-CIO.

American System

Crafted by Henry Clay and backed by the National Republican Party. The American System proposed a series of

tariffs and federally funded transportation improvements, geared toward achieving national economic self-

sufficiency.

Annapolis Convention

Delegates from five states met in Annapolis in September 1786 to discuss interstate commerce. However,

discussions of weaknesses in the government led them to suggest to Congress a new convention to amend the

Articles of Confederation.

Susan B. Anthony

A leading member of the women’s suffrage movement. She served as president of the National American Woman

Suffrage Association from 1892 until 1900.

Anti-federalists

During ratification, anti-federalists opposed the Constitution on the grounds that it gave the federal government

too much political, economic, and military control. They instead advocated a decentralized governmental

structure that granted the most power to the states.

Anti-Imperialist League

Argued against American imperialism in the late 1890s. Its members included such luminaries as William

James, Andrew Carnegie, and Mark Twain.

Anti-Saloon League

Founded in 1895, the league spearheaded the prohibition movement during the Progressive Era.

Articles of Confederation

Adopted in 1777 during the Revolutionary War. The Articles established the first limited central government of

the United States, reserving most powers for the individual states. The Articles didn’t grant enough federal

power to manage the country’s budget or maintain internal stability, and were replaced by the Constitution in

1789.

Assembly line

Industrialist Henry Ford installed the first assembly line while developing his Model T car in 1908, and perfected

its use in the 1920s. Assembly line manufacturing allowed workers to remain in one place and master one

repetitive action, maximizing output. It became the production method of choice by the 1930s.

Atlantic Charter

Issued on August 14, 1941 during a meeting between President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston

Churchill. The charter outlined the ideal postwar world, condemned military aggression, asserted the right to

national self-determination, and advocated disarmament.

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

After World War II, the AEC worked on developing more effective ways of using nuclear material, such as

uranium, in order to mass-produce nuclear weapons.

The Awakening

Written by Kate Chopin in 1899. The Awakening portrays a married woman who defies social convention first by

falling in love with another man, and then by committing suicide when she finds that his views on women are as

oppressive as her husband’s. The novel reflects the changing role of women during the early 1900s.

Axis powers

During World War II, the Axis powers included Germany, Italy, and Japan. The three powers signed the

Tripartite Pact in September 1940.

Baby boom

Nickname for the 1950s, when economic prosperity caused U.S. population to swell from 150 million to 180

million.

Bacon’s Rebellion

In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon, a Virginia planter, accused the royal governor of failing to provide poorer farmers

protection from raiding tribes. In response, Bacon led 300 settlers in a war against local Native Americans, and

then burned and looted Jamestown. The rebellion highlighted the increasing rift between rich and poor in the

Chesapeake region.

Bank of the United States

Chartered in 1791, the bank was a controversial part of Alexander Hamilton’s Federalist economic program.

Bank veto

Andrew Jackson’s 1832 veto of the proposed charter renewal for the Second Bank of the United States. The veto

marked the beginning of Jackson’s five-year battle against the national bank.

Battle of Antietam

Fought in Maryland on September 17, 1863. Considered the single bloodiest day of the Civil War, casualties

totalled more than 8,000 dead and 18,000 wounded. Although Union forces failed to defeat Lee and the

Confederates, they did halt the Confederate advance through Northern soil.

Battle of Britain

Conducted during the summer and fall of 1940. In preparation for an amphibious assault, Germans lauched

airstrikes on London. Hitler hoped the continuous bombing would destroy British industry and sap morale, but

the British successfully avoided a German invasion.

Battle of the Bulge

The final German offensive in Western Europe, lasting from December 16, 1944, to January 16, 1945. Hitler

amassed his last reserves against Allied troops in France. Germany made a substantial dent in the Allied front

line, but the Allies recovered and repelled the Germans, clearing the way for a march toward Berlin.

Battle of Gettysburg

The largest battle of the Civil War. Widely considered to be the war’s turning point, the battle marked the

Union’s first major victory in the East. The three-day campaign, from July 1 to 4, 1863, resulted in an

unprecedented 51,000 total casualties.

Battle of Tippecanoe

Led by future president William Henry Harrison, U.S. forces defeated Shawnee forces in the Battle of

Tippecanoe in 1811. The U.S. victory lessened the Native American threat in Ohio and Indiana.

Bay of Pigs Invasion

A failed attempt by U.S.-backed Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro’s communist

government in April 1961.

The Beats

Nonconformist writers such as Allan Ginsberg, the author of Howl (1956), and Jack Kerouac, who penned On

the Road (1957). The Beats rejected uniform middle-class culture and sought to overturn the sexual and social

conservatism of the period.

Berlin Blockade

In June 1948, the Soviets attempted to cut off Western access to Berlin by blockading all road and rail routes to

the city. In response, the U.S. airlifted supplies to the city, a campaign known as “Operation Vittles.” The

blockade lasted until May 1949.

Berlin Wall

Constructed by the USSR and completed in August 1961 to prevent East Berliners from fleeing to West Berlin.

The wall cemented the political split of Berlin between the communist and authoritian East and the capitalist

and democratic West. The Berlin wall was torn down on November 9, 1989, setting the stage for the

reunification of Germany and signifying the end of the Cold War.

Big stick diplomacy

Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy summed up his aggressive stance toward international affairs with the

phrase, “Speak softly and carry a big stick.” Under this doctrine, the U.S. declared its domination over Latin

America and built the Panama Canal.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments of the Constitution, which guarantee the civil rights of American citizens. The Bill of

Rights was drafted by anti-federalists, including James Madison, to protect individuals from the tyranny they

felt the Constitution might permit.

Black codes

Granted freedmen a few basic rights but also enforced heavy civil restrictions based on race. The codes were

enacted in Southern states under Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction plan.

Black Panthers

Organized in 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. The Black Panthers stressed a black

pride, economic self-sufficiency, and armed resistance to white oppression.

Black Power

Coined by Stokely Carmichael, and adopted by Malcom X, the Black Panthers, and other civil rights groups. The

term embodied the fight against oppression and the value of ethnic heritage.

Black Thursday

The stock market crash of October 24, 1929. After a decade of great prosperity, on “Black Thursday” the market

dropped in value by an astounding 9 percent, kicking off the Great Depression.

Bleeding Kansas

The popular name for the Kansas Territory in 1856 after abolitionist John Brown led a massacre at a pro-slavery

camp, setting off waves of violence. Brown’s massacre was in protest to the recent establishment of Kansas as a

slave state. Pro-slavery sympathizers had crossed into Kansas in order to vote illegally in the elections set up by

the Kansas-Nebraska Act, resulting in the ousting of antislavery legislators.

Bootleggers

Smugglers of alcohol into the United States during the Prohibition Era (1920–1933), often from Canada or the

West Indies.

Boston Massacre

In March 1770, a crowd of colonists protested against Boston customs agents and the Townsend Duties. Violence

flared and five colonists were killed.

Boston Tea Party

A protest against the 1773 Tea Act, which allowed Britain to use the profits from selling tea to pay the salaries of

royal governors. In December 1773, Samuel Adams gathered Boston residents and warned them of the

consequences of the Tea Act. Following the meeting, approximately fifty young men dressed as Mohawk Indians

boarded the ships and dumped the cargo into the harbor.

Boxer Rebellion

A group of zealous Chinese nationalists terrorized foreigners and Chinese Christians, capturing Beijing (Peking)

in June 1900 and threatening European and American interests in Chinese markets. The United States

committed 2,500 men to an international force that crushed the rebellion in August 1900.

John Brown

A religious zealot and an extreme abolitionist who believed God had ordained him to end slavery. In 1856, he led

an attack against pro-slavery government officials in Kansas, killing five and sparking months of violence that

earned the territory the name “Bleeding Kansas.” In 1859, he led twenty-one men in seizing a federal arsenal in

Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, in a failed attempt to incite a slave rebellion. He was caught and hanged.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

A 1954 landmark Supreme Court decision that reversed the “separate but equal” segregationist doctrine

established by the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision. The Court ruled that separate facilities were inherently

unequal and ordered public schools to desegregate nationwide. This decision was characteristic of the Supreme

Court rulings under liberal Chief Justice Earl Warren.

William Jennings Bryan

Democratic candidate for president in 1896. His goal of “free silver” (unlimited coinage of silver) won him the

support of the Populist Party. Though a gifted orator, Bryan lost the election to Republican William McKinley.

He ran again for president and lost in 1900. In the 1920s, Bryan made his mark as a leader of the fundamentalist

cause and the key witness in the Scopes Monkey Trial.

James Buchanan

A moderate Democrat with support from both the North and South who served as president of the United States

from 1857 to 1861. Buchanan could not stem the tide of sectional conflict that eventually erupted into Civil War.

Bull Moose Party

The nickname of the Progressive Republican Party, led by Theodore Roosevelt in the 1912 election. The Bull

Moose Party had the best showing of any third party in the history of the United States. Its emergence

dramatically weakened the Republican Party and allowed Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the

election with only 42 percent of the popular vote.

George Bush

Republican, vice president to Ronald Reagan and president of the United States from 1989 to 1993. His

presidency was marked by economic recession and U.S. involvement in the Gulf War.

John Cabot

Explored the northeast coast of North America in 1497 and 1498, claiming Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the

Grand Banks for England.

John C. Calhoun

Political figure throughout the Era of Good Feelings and the Age of Jackson. Calhoun served as James Monroe’s

secretary of war, as John Quincy Adams’s vice president, and then as Andrew Jackson’s vice president for one

term. A firm believer in states’ rights, Calhoun clashed with Jackson over many issues, most notably

nullification.

Camp David Accords

Negotiaged by President Carter, the Camp David Accords were signed by Israel’s leader, Menachem Begin, and

Egypt’s leader, Anwar el-Sadat, on March 26, 1979. The treaty, however, fell apart when Sadat was assassinated

by Islamic fundamentalists in 1981.

Camp meetings

Religious revivals on the frontier during the Second Great Awakening. Hundreds or even thousands of people—

members of various denominations—met to hear speeches on repentance and sing hymns.

Stokely Carmichael

Once a prominent member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Carmichael abandoned his

nonviolent leanings and became a leader of the Black Nationalist movement in 1966. He coined the phrase

“Black Power.”

Andrew Carnegie

A Scottish immigrant who in 1901 founded Carnegie Steel, then the world’s largest corporation. In addition to

being an entrepreneur and industrialist, Carnegie was a philanthropist who donated more than $300 million to

charity during his lifetime.

Carpetbaggers

Nickname given to northerners who moved South during Reconstruction in search of political and economic

opportunity. The term was coined by Southern Democrats, who said that these northern opportunists had left

home so quickly that they were able to carry all their belongings in rough suitcases made from carpeting

materials.

Jimmy Carter

Democratic president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. Carter is best known for his commitment to human

rights. During his term in office, he faced an oil crisis, a weak economy, and severe tension in the Middle East.

Jacques Cartier

A French sailor who explored the St. Lawrence River region between 1534 and 1542. Cartier searched for a

Northwest Passage, a waterway through which ships could cross the Americas and access Asia. He found no such

passage but opened the region up to future exploration and colonization by the French.

Cash-and-carry

In September 1939, FDR persuaded Congress to pass a new, amended Neutrality Act, which allowed warring

nations to purchase arms from the U.S. as long as they paid in cash and carried the arms away on their own

ships. This cash-and-carry program allowed the U.S. to aid the Allies but stay officially out of the war.

Fidel Castro

A communist revolutionary. Castro ousted an authoritarian regime in Cuba in 1959 and established the

communist regime that remains in power to this day.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

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