Teoria literatury.rtf

METAPHORS
Uncommon types

An absolute or paralogical metaphor (sometimes called an anti-metaphor) is one in which there is no discernible point of resemblance between the idea and the image. e.g. “light” as a metaphor for virtue.

An active metaphor is one which by contrast to a dead metaphor, is not part of daily language and is noticeable as a metaphor.

A complex metaphor is one which mounts one identification on another. Example: "That throws some light on the question." Throwing light is a metaphor: there is no actual light, and a question is not the sort of thing that can be lit up.

A compound or loose metaphor is one that catches the mind with several points of similarity. Example: "He has the wild stag's foot." This phrase suggests grace and speed as well as daring.

A dying metaphor is a pejorative term coined by George Orwell in his essay Politics and the English Language. Orwell defines a dying metaphor as a metaphor that isn't dead (dead metaphors are different, as they are treated like ordinary words), but has been worn out and is used because it saves people the trouble of inventing an original phrase for themselves. In short, a cliché. Example: Achilles' heel. Orwell suggests that writers scan their work for such dying forms that have 'been seen regularly before in print' and replace them with alternative language patterns.

An epic metaphor or Homeric simile is an extended metaphor containing details about the vehicle that are not, in fact, necessary for the metaphoric purpose. This can be extended to humorous lengths, for instance: "This is a crisis. A large crisis. In fact, if you've got a moment, it's a twelve-storey crisis with a magnificent entrance hall, carpeting throughout, 24-hour porterage and an enormous sign on the roof saying 'This Is a Large Crisis.'" (Blackadder)

An implicit metaphor is one in which the tenor is not specified but implied. Example: "Shut your trap!" Here, the mouth of the listener is the unspecified tenor.

An implied or unstated metaphor is a metaphor not explicitly stated or obvious that compares two things by using adjectives that commonly describe one thing, but are used to describe another comparing the two.

An example: "Golden baked skin", comparing bakery goods to skin or "green blades of nausea", comparing green grass to the pallor of a nauseated person or "leafy golden sunset" comparing the sunset to a tree in the fall.

A simple or tight metaphor is one in which there is but one point of resemblance between the tenor and the vehicle. Example: "Cool it". In this example, the vehicle, "Cool", is a temperature and nothing else, so the tenor, "it", can only be grounded to the vehicle by one attribute.

A submerged metaphor is one in which the vehicle is implied, or indicated by one aspect. Example: "my winged thought". Here, the audience must supply the image of the bird.

A synecdochic metaphor is a trope that is both a metaphor and a synecdoche in which a small part of something is chosen to represent the whole so as to highlight certain elements of the whole.

SYMBOL
A symbol is something such as an object, picture, written word, sound, or particular mark that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention.

ALLEGORY
Allegory is the figurative mode of representation conveying meaning other than the literal. Allegory communicates its message by means of symbolic figures, actions or symbolic representation. Allegory is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be expressed in language: it may be addressed to the eye, and is often found in realistic painting, sculpture or some other form of mimetic, or representative art.

FIGURES OF SPEECH
A figure of speech is a use of a word that diverges from its normal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it such as a metaphor, simile, or personification. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a rhetoric or a locution.
Division:
1. Tropes (from the Greek tropein, to turn) change the general meaning of words. An example of a trope is irony, which is the use of words to convey the opposite of their usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So are they all, all honorable men").
·allegory: An extended metaphor in which a story is told to illustrate an important attribute of the subject

·anacoenosis: Posing a question to an audience, often with the implication that it shares a common interest with the speaker

·antanaclasis: A form of pun in which a word is repeated in two different senses

·anthimeria: The substitution of one part of speech for another, often turning a noun into a verb

·anthropomorphism: applying human or animal qualities to inanimate objects

·antiphrasis: A word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony

·antonomasia: The substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa

·aphorism: Calling into question the meaning of a term

·apophasis: Invoking an idea by denying its invocation

·aporia: Deliberating with oneself, often with the use of rhetorical questions

·apostrophe: Addressing a thing, an abstraction or a person not present

·archaism: Use of an obsolete, archaic, word

·auxesis: A form of hyperbole, in which a more important sounding word is used in place of a more descriptive term

·catachresis: A mixed metaphor (sometimes used by design and sometimes a rhetorical fault)

·circumlocution: "Talking around" a topic by substituting or adding words, as in euphemism or periphrasis

·denominatio: Another word for metonymy

·epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue.

·erotema: Synonym for rhetorical question

·euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another

·hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis

·hypophora: Answering one's own rhetorical question at length

·hysteron proteron: Reversal of anticipated order of events

·innuendo: Having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not

·irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning

·litotes: Emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite

·malapropism: Using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar

·meiosis: Use of understatement, usually to diminish the importance of something

·metalepsis: Referring to something through reference to another thing to which it is remotely related

·metaphor: An implied comparison of two things

·metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant

·oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other,Ex: seriously funny, clearly confused

·parable: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson

·paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth

·paralipsis: Drawing attention to something while pretending to pass it over

·paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used

·pathetic fallacy: Using a word that refers to a human action on something non-human

·periphrasis: Substitution of a word or phrase for a proper name

·personification/prosopopoeia/anthropomorphism: Attributing a personality to some impersonal object

·praeteritio: Another word for paralipsis

·procatalepsis: Refuting anticipated objections as part of the main argument

·prolepsis: Another word for procatalepsis

·proslepsis: An extreme form of paralipsis in which the speaker provides great detail while feigning to pass over a topic

·rhetorical question: Asking a question as a way of asserting something

·simile: An explicit comparison between two things EX: My love is like a red, red rose ——Robert Burns Her hair was like gravy, running brown off her head and clumping up on her shoulders. You are like a hurricane: there's calm in your eye, but I'm getting blown away — Neil Young The air-lifted rhinoceros hit the ground like a garbage bag filled with split pea soup.

·syllepsis: A form of pun, in which a single word is used to modify two other words, with which it normally would have differing meanings

·synecdoche: A form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole

·transferred epithet: The placing of an adjective with what appears to be the incorrect noun

·truism: a self-evident statement

·zeugma: a figure of speech related to syllepsis, but different in that the word used as a modifier is not compatible with one of the two words it modifies

·zoomorphism: applying animal characteristics to humans or gods
2. Schemes:
·accumulatio: Summarization of previous arguments in a forceful manner

·alliteration: Repetition of consonants in nearby words

·anacoluthon: A change in the syntax within a sentence

·anadiplosis: Repetition of a word at the end of a clause at the beginning of another

·anaphora: The repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses

·anastrophe: Inversion of the usual word order

·anticlimax: the arrangement of words in order of decreasing importance

·antimetabole: Repetition of words in successive clauses, in reverse order

·antistrophe: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses

·antithesis: The juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas

·aposiopesis: Breaking off or pausing speech for dramatic or emotional effect

·apostrophe: Directing the attention away from the audience and to a personified abstraction, either present or not

·apposition: The placing of two elements side by side, in which the second defines the first

·assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse.

·asyndeton: Omission of conjunctions between related clauses

·cacophony: The juxtaposition of words producing a harsh sound

·chiasmus: Reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses

·climax: The arrangement of words in order of increasing importance

·dystmesis: A synonym for tmesis

·ellipsis: Omission of words

·enallage: The substitution of forms that are grammatically different, but have the same meaning

·enthymeme: Informal method of presenting a syllogism

·epanalepsis: Repetition of a word at the beginning and end of a clause

·epistrophe: The counterpart of anaphora

·hendiadys: Use of two nouns to express an idea when the normal structure would be a noun and a modifier

·hendiatris: Use of three nouns to express one idea

·hypallage: Changing the order of words so that they are associated with words normally associated with others

·hyperbaton: Schemes featuring unusual or inverted word order

·isocolon: Use of parallel structures of the same length in successive clauses

·parallelism: The use of similar structures in two or more clauses

·paraprosdokian: Unexpected ending or truncation of a clause

·parenthesis: Insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence

·perissologia: The fault of wordiness

·pleonasm: The use of superfluous or redundant words

·polyptoton: Repetition of words derived from the same root

·polysyndeton: Repetition of conjunctions

·synchysis: Interlocked word order

·synesis: An agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form

·synonymia: The use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence

·tautology: Redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice

·tmesis: Division of the elements of a compound word

CONOTATION - Connotation is a subjective cultural and/or emotional coloration in addition to the explicit or denotative meaning of any specific word or phrase in a language, i.e. emotional association with a word.The connotation, or intension, of a word is the list of attributes shared by all members of the class named by the word (think of it as “by using this word, what do I intend?”). Thus the word “planet” connotes certain characteristics which astronomers have decided differentiate certain objects from other objects like comets, stars, and asteroids. The debate over whether the word “planet” denotes “Pluto” is due to the fact that astronomers disagree on what sorts of attributes are connoted by the word “planet,” and hence whether “Pluto” has the right attributes to qualify as a planet.
DENOTATION - In logic, linguistics and semiotics, the denotation of a word or phrase is a part of its meaning; however, the part referred to varies by context:

In grammar and literary theory, the literal meaning or "dictionary definition" of a term, devoid of emotion, attitude, and color.

In semiotics, the surface or literal meaning of a signifier. In grammar, a word’s denotation is whatever the word directly refers to, roughly equivalent to its lexical definition. Thus, the word “atheist” denotes a person who disbelieves in or denies the existence of gods. A word’s connotation refers to any subtle nuances that might or might not be intended by its use. For example, one possible connotation for the word “atheist” might be someone who is immoral and wicked, depending upon who is doing the speaking or listening.